Greek alphabet

Name	Greek alphabet
Sample
Alt	Ελληνικό αλφάβητο
Caption	"Greek alphabet" in the modern Greek language
Type	Alphabet
Languages	Greek
Official Script	Greece Cyprus European Union
Time	present
Direction	Left-to-right
Fam1	Egyptian hieroglyphs
Fam2	Proto-Sinaitic alphabet
Fam3	Phoenician alphabet
Children	Anatolian ⋅ Armenian ⋅ Caucasian Albanian ⋅ Coptic ⋅ Cyrillic ⋅ Georgian ⋅ Glagolitic ⋅ Gothic ⋅ Old Italic (most notably Etruscan) and thus Latin and Runic
Unicode	U+0370–U+03FF Greek and Coptic U+1F00–U+1FFF Greek Extended
Iso15924	Grek
Note	none

Letters

Sound values

Greek orthographyManners of articulation
In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages.

• Matthews, Ben, May 2006, Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: An Overview, 25 October 2023, ResearchGate
• Net Definition & Meaning, 2023-10-25, Britannica Dictionary, en-US, 2023-11-08, live

• Matthews, Ben, May 2006, Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: An Overview, 25 October 2023, ResearchGate
• Net Definition & Meaning, 2023-10-25, Britannica Dictionary, en-US, 2023-11-08, live

Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable.

The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers:

Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek.

Digraphs and letter combinations

Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above (, pronounced /i/ and , pronounced /e/), there is also , and , pronounced /u/. The Ancient Greek diphthongs , and are pronounced av, ev and iv in Modern Greek. In some environments, they are devoiced to af, ef and if. The Modern Greek consonant combinations and stand for b and d (or mb and nd); stands for d͡z and stands for t͡s. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter , before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal ŋ; thus and are pronounced like English like in the word finger (not like in the word thing). In analogy to and , is also used to stand for g before vowels a, o and u, and ɟ before e and i. There are also the combinations and .

Diacritics

Greek diacritics

Romanization

Romanization of Greek
There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, is replaced with , the diphthongs and are rendered as and (or ); and and are simplified to and . Smooth breathing marks are usually ignored and rough breathing marks are usually rendered as the letter . In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, will usually be rendered as , and the vowel combinations as . The letters and are generally rendered as and ; as either or ; and word-initial as .

Transcription conventions for Modern Greek differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843), by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, by the Library of Congress, and others.

History

Origins

History of the Greek alphabet

Phoenician			Greek
	aleph			Α	alpha	,
	beth			Β	beta
	gimel			Γ	gamma
	daleth			Δ	delta
	he			Ε	epsilon	,
	waw			Ϝ	(digamma)
	zayin			Ζ	zeta	zd(?)
	heth			Η	eta	,
	teth			Θ	theta
	yodh			Ι	iota	,
	kaph			Κ	kappa
	lamedh			Λ	lambda
	mem			Μ	mu
	nun			Ν	nu

Phoenician			Greek
	samekh			Ξ	xi	/ks/
	ʿayin			Ο	omicron	,
	pe			Π	pi
	ṣade			Ϻ	(san)
	qoph			Ϙ	(koppa)
	reš			Ρ	rho
	šin			Σ	sigma
	taw			Τ	tau
	(waw)			Υ	upsilon	,
–				Φ	phi
–				Χ	chi
–				Ψ	psi	/ps/
–				Ω	omega

Archaic variants

Archaic Greek alphabets

Phoenician model

Southern

"green"

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

Western

"red"

Eastern

"light blue"

—

"dark blue"

Classic Ionian

—

—

—

—

Modern alphabet

Α

Β

Γ

Δ

Ε

—

Ζ

—

Η

Θ

Ι

Κ

Λ

Μ

Ν

Ξ

Ο

Π

—

—

Ρ

Σ

Τ

Υ

—

Φ

Χ

Ψ

Ω

Sound in Ancient Greek

a

b

g

d

e

w

zd

h

ē

tʰ

i

k

l

m

n

ks

o

p

s

k

r

s

t

u

ks

pʰ

kʰ

ps

ō

*Upsilon is also derived from waw (

Letter names

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ʾaleph, the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop /ʔ/, bet, or "house", for the /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma.

The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek, they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of beta, ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation vita). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as «λάβδα» besides «λάμβδα»; in Modern Greek the spelling is often «λάμδα», reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled «γιώτα» in Modern Greek (ʝ is conventionally transcribed word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and /a/). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system.

In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular.

In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with , indicating an original pronunciation with -ē. In Modern Greek these names are spelled with .

The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and ɔ. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters and , pronounced identically by this time, were called o mikron ("small o") and o mega ("big o"). The letter was called e psilon ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph , while, similarly, , which at this time was pronounced , was called y psilon ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph .

Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce ˈɣamːa and ˈkapʰa; also, «ήτα» has come to be pronounced ˈitʰa in Cypriot.

Letter shapes

Inscription		Manuscript		Modern print
Archaic	Classical	Uncial	Minuscule	Lowercase	Uppercase
				α	Α
				β	Β
				γ	Γ
				δ	Δ
				ε	Ε
				ζ	Ζ
				η	Η
				θ	Θ
				ι	Ι
				κ	Κ
				λ	Λ
				μ	Μ
				ν	Ν
				ξ	Ξ
				ο	Ο
				π	Π
				ρ	Ρ
				σ ς	Σ
				τ	Τ
				υ	Υ
				φ	Φ
				χ	Χ
				ψ	Ψ
				ω	Ω

Derived alphabets

• Most of the Iron Age alphabets of Asia Minor were adopted around the same time, as the early Greek alphabet was adopted from the Phoenician. The Lydian and Carian alphabets are generally believed to derive from the Greek alphabet, although it is not clear which variant is the direct ancestor. While some of these alphabets such as Phrygian had slight differences from the Greek counterpart, some like Carian alphabet had mostly different values and several other characters inherited from pre-Greek local scripts. They were in use –300 BC until all the Anatolian languages were extinct due to Hellenization.
• The Latin alphabet, together with various other ancient scripts in Italy, adopted from an archaic form of the Greek alphabet brought to Italy by Greek colonists in the late 8th century BC, via Etruscan;
• The Gothic alphabet, devised in the 4th century to write the Gothic language, based on a combination of Greek and Latin uncial models;
• The Glagolitic alphabet, devised mainly from the Greek minuscule of the 8th and 9th centuries for writing Old Church Slavonic;
• The Cyrillic script, devised in the First Bulgarian Empire based on the Greek uncial majuscule, replaced the Glagolitic script shortly afterwards.
• The Coptic alphabet adds eight letters derived from Demotic. It is still used today, mostly in Egypt, to write Coptic, the liturgical language of Egyptian Christians. Letters usually retain an uncial form different from the forms used for Greek today. The alphabet of Old Nubian is an adaptation of Coptic.
• The Armenian and Georgian alphabets are almost certainly modeled on the Greek alphabet, but their graphic forms are quite different.

Other uses

Use for other languages

Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages. For some of them, additional letters were introduced.

Antiquity

• It was used in some Paleo-Balkan languages, including Thracian. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as Ancient Macedonian, isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but no continuous texts are preserved.
• The Messapic language used a variant of the Greek alphabet in some few hundred inscriptions, giving a glimpse into the Messapic language and Paleo-Balkan languages.
• Gaulish inscriptions (in modern France) used the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest.
• The Bactrian language, an Iranian language spoken in what is now Afghanistan, was written in the Greek alphabet during the Kushan Empire (65–250 AD). It adds an extra letter for the sh sound .
• Derived from Indo-Greek coinage, the coins of Nahapana and Chastana of the Western Satraps featured an Indo-Aryan language legend written in Greek or pseudo-Greek letters. The subsequent rulers' coins had the Greek script degrade to a mere ornament that no longer represented any legible legend.

Middle Ages

• Coins from the 4th-8th centuries known as mordovkas were used as currency in Eastern Europe by Uralic peoples and were written in Moksha using Greek uncial script.
• An 8th-century Arabic fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet, as does a 9th- or 10th-century psalm translation fragment.
• An Old Ossetic inscription of the 10th–12th centuries found in Arxyz, the oldest known attestation of an Ossetic language.
• The Old Nubian language of Makuria (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from Meroitic script, and a digraph of two Greek gammas used for the velar nasal sound.
• Various South Slavic dialects, similar to the modern Bulgarian and Macedonian languages, have been written in Greek script. The modern South Slavic languages now use modified Cyrillic alphabets.

Early modern

• Turkish spoken by Orthodox Christians (Karamanlides) was often written in Greek script, and called Karamanlidika.
• Tosk Albanian was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500. The printing press at Moschopolis published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that the Monastir conference standardized a Latin orthography for both Tosk and Gheg. Greek spelling is still occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects (Arvanitika) in Greece.
• Gagauz, a Turkic language of the northeast Balkans spoken by Orthodox Christians, was apparently written in Greek characters in the late 19th century. In 1957, it was standardized on Cyrillic, and in 1996, a Gagauz alphabet based on Latin characters was adopted (derived from the Turkish alphabet).
• Surguch, a Turkic language, was spoken by a small group of Orthodox Christians in northern Greece. It is now written in Latin or Cyrillic characters.
• Urum or Greek Tatar, spoken by Orthodox Christians, used the Greek alphabet.
• Judaeo-Spanish or Ladino, a Jewish dialect of Spanish, has occasionally been published in Greek characters in Greece.
• The Italian humanist Giovan Giorgio Trissino tried to add some Greek letters (Ɛ ε, Ꞷ ω) to Italian orthography in 1524.

In mathematics and science

Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation. For many years the Greek alphabet was used by the World Meteorological Organization for naming North Atlantic hurricanes if a season was so active that it exhausted the regular list of storm names. This happened during the 2005 season (when Alpha through Zeta were used), and the 2020 season (when Alpha through Iota were used), after which the practice was discontinued. In May 2021 the World Health Organization announced that the variants of SARS-CoV-2 of the virus would be named using letters of the Greek alphabet to avoid stigma and simplify communications for non-scientific audiences.

Astronomy

Bayer designation
Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations, the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.

International Phonetic Alphabet

Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Several of them denote fricative consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using serifs, to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin-based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper:

On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin-based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones.

The symbol in Americanist phonetic notation for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is the Greek letter lambda , but in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palatal lateral approximant is , which looks similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lowercase y.

Use as numerals

Greek numerals
Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: digamma for 6, koppa for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for ss, today called sampi , for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as , and . To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called keraia is added to the right of it.

Use by student fraternities and sororities

In North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations". This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the Phi Beta Kappa society at the College of William and Mary in 1776. The name of this fraternal organization is an acronym for the ancient Greek phrase «Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης» (), which means "Love of wisdom, the guide of life" and serves as the organization's motto. Sometimes early fraternal organizations were known by their Greek letter names because the mottos that these names stood for were secret and revealed only to members of the fraternity.

Different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) designated using Greek letters as serial numbers. The founding chapter of each organization is its A chapter. As an organization expands, it establishes a B chapter, a Γ chapter, and so on and so forth. In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter after Ω chapter is AA chapter, followed by AB chapter, etc. Each of these is still a "chapter Letter", albeit a double-digit letter just as 10 through 99 are double-digit numbers. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double-digit letters when necessary, but it is used for columns in a table or chart rather than chapters of an organization.

Glyph variants

Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in Unicode.

• The symbol ("curled beta") is a cursive variant form of beta (β). In the French tradition of Ancient Greek typography, β is used word-initially, and is used word-internally.
• The letter delta has a form resembling a cursive capital letter D; while not encoded as its own form, this form is included as part of the symbol for the drachma (a Δρ digraph) in the Currency Symbols block, at U+20AF (₯).
• The letter epsilon can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped $ϵ$ ('lunate epsilon', like a semicircle with a stroke) or $\epsilon$ (similar to a reversed number 3). The symbol ϵ (U+03F5) is designated specifically for the lunate form, used as a technical symbol.
• The symbol ("script theta") is a cursive form of theta (θ), frequent in handwriting, and used with a specialized meaning as a technical symbol.
• The symbol ("kappa symbol") is a cursive form of kappa (κ), used as a technical symbol.
• The symbol $\varpi$ ("variant pi") is an archaic script form of pi (π), also used as a technical symbol.
• The letter rho (ρ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the descending tail either going straight down or curled to the right. The symbol (U+03F1) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
• The letter sigma, in standard orthography, has two variants: ς, used only at the ends of words, and σ, used elsewhere. The form ("lunate sigma", resembling a Latin c) is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used in both environments without the final/non-final distinction.
• The capital letter upsilon (Υ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the upper strokes either straight like a Latin Y, or slightly curled. The symbol ϒ (U+03D2) is designated specifically for the curled form ($\mathrm{{\rm Y}}$), used as a technical symbol, e.g. in physics.
• The letter phi can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped as $\mathrm{\varphi }$ (a circle with a vertical stroke through it) or as $\mathrm{\phi }$ (a curled shape open at the top). The symbol (U+03D5) is designated specifically for the closed form, used as a technical symbol.
• The letter omega has at least three stylistic variants of its capital form. The standard is the "open omega" (Ω), resembling an open partial circle with the opening downward and the ends curled outward. The two other stylistic variants are seen more often in modern typography, resembling a raised and underscored circle (roughly ^o̲), where the underscore may or may not be touching the circle on a tangent (in the former case it resembles a superscript omicron similar to that found in the numero sign or masculine ordinal indicator; in the latter, it closely resembles some forms of the Latin letter Q). The open omega is always used in symbolic settings and is encoded in Letterlike Symbols (U+2126) as a separate code point for backward compatibility.

Computer encodings

For computer usage, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in .

The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports both the monotonic and polytonic orthographies.

ISO/IEC 8859-7

For the range A0–FF (hex), it follows the Unicode range 370–3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, ½, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings, it is equal to ASCII for 00–7F (hex).

Greek in Unicode

Greek script in Unicode
Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be represented as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: «ᾱ́».

There are two main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.

This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly, most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2 to U+03EF).

To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).

Combining and letter-free diacritics

Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language:

Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet

IBM code pages 437, 860, 861, 862, 863, and 865 contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternative interpretation for ß).

See also

• Greek Font Society
• Greek ligatures
• Palamedes
• Romanization of Greek

Notes

• Matthews, Ben, May 2006, Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: An Overview, 25 October 2023, ResearchGate
• Net Definition & Meaning, 2023-10-25, Britannica Dictionary, en-US, 2023-11-08, live
• ISO 843:1997 (Conversion of Greek characters into Latin characters), subscription, ISO, International Organization for Standardization, 2010, 2019-09-24, 2024-10-07, live
• Greek, UNGEGN Working Group on Romanization Systems, 2012-07-15, 2003, 2017-10-18, live
• Greek (ALA-LC Romanization Tables), Library of Congress, 2010, 2019-09-24, 2023-03-29, live
• 10.1016/0024-3841(68)90130-7, Newton, B. E., 1968, Spontaneous gemination in Cypriot Greek, Lingua, 20, 15–57, 0024-3841
• Corbett, Professor Greville, The Slavonic Languages, Comrie, Professor Bernard, 2003, Routledge
• Condorelli, Marco, The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Orthography, Rutkowska, Hanna, Cambridge University Press, 2023, 227
• Rapson, E. J., E. J. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, the Western Kṣatrapas, the Traikūṭaka Dynasty, and the 'Bodhi' Dynasty, 1908, Longman & Co, London, cxci, –, cxciv, , , 65, –, 67, , , 72, –, 75
• Trissino, Gian Giorgio, Gian Giorgio Trissino, De le lettere nuωvamente aggiunte ne la lingua Italiana, Wikisource, 1524, 20 October 2022, it, 3 September 2023, live
• September 21, 2020, 2020 hurricane season exhausts regular list of names, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, May 5, 2024, January 25, 2024, live
• WMO Hurricane Committee retires tropical cyclone names and ends the use of Greek alphabet, dead, December 18, 2023, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, May 5, 2024, March 17, 2021
• WHO announces simple, easy-to-say labels for SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Interest and Concern, 2021-06-01, WHO, 31 May 2021, en, 2021-12-06, live
• 2021-05-31, Covid-19 variants to be given Greek alphabet names to avoid stigma, 2021-06-01, The Guardian, Edna, Mohamed, en, 2024-10-07, live
• Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, 1999, Cambridge, University Press, 176–181
• How To Switch From Letters to Numbers for Columns in Excel, Indeed, 21 November 2024
• Anderson, Deborah, Preliminary Guidelines to Using Unicode for Greek, Classics@ Journal, Harvard University, 21 November 2024

References

• Matthews, Ben, May 2006, Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: An Overview, 25 October 2023, ResearchGate
• Net Definition & Meaning, 2023-10-25, Britannica Dictionary, en-US, 2023-11-08, live
• ISO 843:1997 (Conversion of Greek characters into Latin characters), subscription, ISO, International Organization for Standardization, 2010, 2019-09-24, 2024-10-07, live
• Greek, UNGEGN Working Group on Romanization Systems, 2012-07-15, 2003, 2017-10-18, live
• Greek (ALA-LC Romanization Tables), Library of Congress, 2010, 2019-09-24, 2023-03-29, live
• 10.1016/0024-3841(68)90130-7, Newton, B. E., 1968, Spontaneous gemination in Cypriot Greek, Lingua, 20, 15–57, 0024-3841
• Corbett, Professor Greville, The Slavonic Languages, Comrie, Professor Bernard, 2003, Routledge
• Condorelli, Marco, The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Orthography, Rutkowska, Hanna, Cambridge University Press, 2023, 227
• Rapson, E. J., E. J. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, the Western Kṣatrapas, the Traikūṭaka Dynasty, and the 'Bodhi' Dynasty, 1908, Longman & Co, London, cxci, –, cxciv, , , 65, –, 67, , , 72, –, 75
• Trissino, Gian Giorgio, Gian Giorgio Trissino, De le lettere nuωvamente aggiunte ne la lingua Italiana, Wikisource, 1524, 20 October 2022, it, 3 September 2023, live
• September 21, 2020, 2020 hurricane season exhausts regular list of names, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, May 5, 2024, January 25, 2024, live
• WMO Hurricane Committee retires tropical cyclone names and ends the use of Greek alphabet, dead, December 18, 2023, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, May 5, 2024, March 17, 2021
• WHO announces simple, easy-to-say labels for SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Interest and Concern, 2021-06-01, WHO, 31 May 2021, en, 2021-12-06, live
• 2021-05-31, Covid-19 variants to be given Greek alphabet names to avoid stigma, 2021-06-01, The Guardian, Edna, Mohamed, en, 2024-10-07, live
• Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, 1999, Cambridge, University Press, 176–181
• How To Switch From Letters to Numbers for Columns in Excel, Indeed, 21 November 2024
• Anderson, Deborah, Preliminary Guidelines to Using Unicode for Greek, Classics@ Journal, Harvard University, 21 November 2024

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External links

• Greek and Coptic character list in Unicode
• Unicode collation chartsincluding Greek and Coptic letters, sorted by shape
• Examples of Greek handwriting
• Greek Unicode Issues (Nick Nicholas) August 5, 2012, at archive.today
• Unicode FAQ – Greek Language and Script
• alphabetic test for Greek Unicode range (Alan Wood)
• numeric test for Greek Unicode range
• Classical Greek keyboard, a browser-based tool
• GFS Typefaces, a collection of free fonts by Greek Font Society